Wiley ap human geo 5 th edition
There are also several other types of errors (often called nonsampling errors) that occur commonly in surveys (including censuses).
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The sampling error depends on the probability sampling method used methods for estimating the sampling error are discussed extensively in the literature. The use of probability sampling methods allows one to characterize and estimate this error. Since a sample survey collects data from only a subset of the population, the estimates have sampling error. 2 There are also many ways of conducting surveys of human populations-for example, by mail, through telephone interviews, or in on-line surveys. There is a vast literature on questionnaire design. The design of the questionnaire is critical to ensuring that the data collected are of good quality and can provide information that is generalizable to the target population. In surveys of human populations, the data are generally collected using a questionnaire as the survey instrument-the participants are asked to respond to a set of questions. A variety of other probability sampling techniques, such as stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling, as well as corresponding estimation methods, have been developed in the literature. For practical and statistical reasons, it may not always be desirable or feasible to use simple random sampling.
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Under this method, every possible subset of a fixed size from the population has equal probability of being selected. There are many ways of selecting probability samples, but the simplest method is simple random sampling. As noted above, one must use probability sampling methods in order to make statistically valid conclusions about the target population. In most situations, however, data are collected from only a subset of the population, in which case the survey is called a sample survey. A survey that collects data from the entire population is called a census. While surveys are generally identified with human populations (for example, opinion polls, consumer surveys, demographic and economic surveys), surveys of other types of populations (such as geological surveys and administrative records) are also common. The term survey refers to techniques for collecting data from the target population of interest. Nonprobability sampling (such as judgment or convenience sampling techniques) does not allow one to make a similar inference about the population characteristics without additional assumptions. The uncertainty in the estimate because of sampling variability is referred to as the sampling error or margin of error. This provides a basis for using sample data to draw appropriate statistical inference (point and interval estimates, statements about statistical bias and precision, and so on) about the population characteristic(s) of interest. In probability sampling, the subset is selected according to a specified probability mechanism. Samples can be grouped broadly in two categories: probability samples and nonprobability samples.
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Note that many of the aviation data sets discussed in Section 2.1 are samples, because the available data are a subset of the data sets for the whole aviation system. In statistical terminology, a sample refers to a subset of the population of interest.